Regulating Act: 1773 Pitts India Act: 1784

the Regulating Act introduced reasons: 1. the BEIC was facing serious financial difficulties 2. pressing need to regulate company affairs and curb corruption 3. to establish control by British government 4. BEIC’s expanded role beyond trade to governance 5. BEIC employees enage in private trade and accepting gifts -> conflict of interest -> enact the Regulating Act of 1773 by British Parliament, first important parliamentary act regarding BEIC

Key provisions: 1. Establish the position of Governor-General of Bengal(supervisory powers over Madras and Bombay) 2. Create Supreme Court in Calcutta -> formal judicial system in British India 3. Ban private trade -> curb corruption among BEIC employees 4. Ban gift accept -> reduce corruption and conflicts of interest 5. Restructure the Company’s Board of Directors -> improve oversight and management -> Address issues led to the Act’s creation, to regulate BEIC, improve goverenance in India, reduce corruption

Key points: 1. shift in relationship between BEIC and British government 2. lay foundation for centralized admin in India 3. introduce judicial system in British India 4. curb corruption 5. process control 6. Recognized the changing role of the Company from a trading entity to a governing body. The act acknowledged that the Company’s responsibilities in India had expanded beyond mere commerce​

Some problems: 1. not fully address all problems 2. need for greater government control

Significance from British perspective: 1. more oversight from British Government 2. improve admin of India 3. enhance efficiency and effectiveness of admin in India 4. address corruption and mismanagement, as they persisted 5. balance Company interests with British national interests 6. align with broader objective

Provision of Pitts India Act: 1. introduced Board of Control to supervise BEIC 2. reduce members in Governor-General’s Council -> more power over presidencies -> better central control 3. prohibit wars and treaties without government approval -> control BEIC expansion and foreign policy 4. establish dual control system between British Government and BEIC 5. increase parliamentary supervision of Indian affairs -> enhance BG oversight of BEIC -> address shortcomes of Regulating Act, establish more comprehensive system of control over the BEIC’s admin of India.

Key points: 1. strengthened Governor-Genral’s position 2. increased BG supervision of BEIC 3. created clear chain of command 4. limted BEIC’s political power(war and make treaties) 5. seperate commercial and political functions 6. recognize India as a political issue, national importance for Britian

Issues: 1. dual admin system -> disagreement 2. unclear division of power 3. complexity of new system(bureaucracy, slow decision making) 4. limited impact on corruption at lower level 5. blurred commercial and political roles 6. potential for political interference 7. Challenges in implementation. Enforcing the new regulations and structure in India could prove difficult due to distance and existing practices

  1. Reforms in Governance and Law:

    • “Bentinck was concerned with the establishment of the principle of equality of law in India. He wanted a single code of law for the whole population, ‘black and white, native and European.’” -> social justice and stablility for both sides (Although the dichotomy was problematic)
    • “Bentinck sought… to raise the standards of the peasants. He allowed virtual freedom of the press, a measure which he hoped would stimulate the growth of ideas.”

  2. Economic and Public Services:

    • “Bentinck… balanced his budgets by reducing expenses and avoiding wars, and he demonstrated that India could produce a surplus of revenue which could be applied to education and public works.” -> reduced expense, better distribution of resources
    • “He began a survey of a Ganges canal, pushed the building of roads, and advanced steam navigation of Indian rivers.” -> public service, but makes exploition of resources more effective

Administrative Reforms by Lord Dalhousie

==Doctrine of Lapse==: It was customary for a ruler without a natural heir to ask the British government whether he could adopt a son to succeed him. Dalhousie concluded that if such permission were refused, the state would “lapse” and thereby become part of the British possessions.

1858 Government of India Act

Background

Indian Mutiny in 1857: - The mutiny shows that BEIC was not capable of administrate India - The British Crown sought more direct and centralized control

Queen Victoria’s Proclamation in 1858: symbolizes the transfer of power, from BEIC to British Crown

Main Provisions

Main Provisions of the Act: - Transfer of power - India became direct British colony - ==BEIC was abolished== - Abolished dual government of Pitt’s India Act and Doctrine of Lapse - Indian territories of Britain were to be governed in the name of the British Queen - The Court of Directors and the Board of Control were scrapped. - The powers of the Company’s Court of Directors were vested with the ==Secretary of State== for India. - This Secretary of State was to be a British MP(member of parliament) and a member of the Prime Minister’s cabinet. He was to be assisted by a ==council of 15 members==(Indians). - The Secretary of State was the channel of communication between the British government in Britain and the Indian administration - Governor-General is renamed to ==Viceroy== - The Viceroy and the governors were appointed by the Crown - The Viceroy was to be assisted with an Executive Council - ==The Indian Civil Services== was to be instituted for the administration of the country. - The remaining Indian princes and chiefs would have their independent status provided they acept British suzerainty(the right of a country to partly control)

Significance

Continuity

Precursor to Nationalist Movement: - failure to provide Indian representation in governance

Continual colonial exploitation

Change

Direct control of British Crown, BEIC abolished

Long-term Policy Direction: - Set the tone for British policy in India, emphasizing stability and gradual change, inspiring the 1935 act

https://vajiramandravi.com/upsc-exam/government-of-india-act-1858/

Partition of Bengal (1905)

Causes

Administration difficulty: its population of 78 million people

Divide and Rule policy: aim to weaken Indian nationalists by dividing them

Course

1905 15th October, plan approved by the secretary of state and came into effect

Divided into East and West.

![[RV prac/history/India/India Independent Movement/_resources/Pasted image 20250411205001.png]]

Perspectives

  • Hindu: outraged by the clear “divide and rule” motive, affecting unity of the Bengali-speaking community in order to create a majority Muslim province with equal status.
  • Muslims: delighted, provided power base and elect their own provincial government

Protest Methods

Swadeshi

aim: create a feeling of “self-respect” actions: boycott of buying British goods and Lancashire cotton

Terrorism

what happened: - In 1908, two European women were killed when a bomb, intended for a local judge, was thrown into the wrong carriage. - In 1909, the terrorism came to London, when an official at the India Office was shot in the street by a Punjabi seeking political martyrdom.

Effect: - tension in Congress between moderates and radicals

Protest’s effect

Congress’s aim shifted to independence, as both radicals and moderates agreed British would never be good to Indians. (Gokhale, leader of the moderates, complained about the lack of consultation over the partition of Bengal.)

Muslim believed ruling by Hindu will not bring fairness because of the anger of Muslim majority province creation.

The Simla Deputation​ (1906)

What was the Simla deputation? What did it hope to achieve?​

It was a meeting between Indian Muslim leaders and Viceroy. It aimed to “win the sympathies of the Raj on their side concerning matters relating to their interests as a community” (banglapedia), so that their representation of Muslim will increase.

What did it achieve?​

Lord Minto showed indirect support to the Muslim leaders’ demand issued during the meeting. In 1909, “the morley-minto reforms made provisions for a separate electorate for the Muslims of India”. Therefore, the movement is successful. (banglapedia)

What was the significance of the agreement they reached with the viceroy?

The seperate electorate for Muslims of India enabled the Muslims to gain constitutional status as a independent community, This sparked the Muslim nationalism and foreshadowed the creation of Pakistan in 1947. (banglapedia)

It was the first time that the Hindu-Muslim conflict was lifted to the constitutional plane. (historypak)

Indian Councils Act​ (1909)

To what extent did the 1909 constitutional reforms represent continuity rather than change in the British administration of India?

Theme Change Continuity
Legislative Council Structure - The legislative councils at the Centre and the provinces increased in size.
Central Legislative Council – from 16 to 60 membersLegislative Councils of Bengal, Madras, Bombay and United Provinces – 50 members eachLegislative Councils of Punjab, Burma and Assam – 30 members each		 - The legislative councils at the Centre and the provinces were to have four categories of members as follows:
Ex officio members: Governor-General and members of the executive council.
Nominated official members: Government officials who were nominated by the Governor-General.
Nominated non-official members: nominated by the Governor-General but were not government officials.
Elected members: elected by different categories of Indians.
- In the provincial councils, non-official members were in the majority. However, since some of the non-official members were nominated, in total, a non-elected majority was there.
Electoral Process & Representation - It introduced separate electorates for the Muslims. Some constituencies were earmarked for Muslims and only Muslims could vote their representatives. - The elected members were elected indirectly. The local bodies elected an electoral college that would elect members of the provincial legislative councils. These members would, in turn, elect the members of the Central legislative council.
- The elected members were from the local bodies (minority or higher hierachy), the chambers of commerce, landlords, universities, traders’ communities and Muslims.
Indian Participation in Governance - Indians were given membership to the Imperial Legislative Council for the first time.
- Lord Minto appointed (on much persuasion by Morley) Satyendra P Sinha as the first Indian member of the Viceroy’s Executive Council.
- Two Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary of State for Indian affairs.		 /
Legislative Powers / - The members could discuss the budget and move resolutions. They could also discuss matters of public interest.
- They could also ask supplementary questions.
- No discussions on foreign policy or on relations with the princely states were permitted.

From the table, Indian people were given more power and representation in governance, and the division between Hindu and Muslim was increased. However, still, non-elected majority existed; the election was indirect; and discussions on broader political scope was banned. Therefore, the change was limited but steadily improved Indian representation in policy making, while the policy kept the restriction put on Indian by British Crown.

Rowllets Act 1919

motive

Introduced by ==Rowllet== of the Rowllet committee, passed in March 1919 by the imperial legislative council

The act was setup in response to the perception of potential danger by nationalists.

Key provisions

  1. Authorize British police to arrest anybody in suspect of terrorist activities
  2. Under the act people can be detained for up to 2 years without a trial
  3. Empower police to search place without warrant
  4. Place severe censorship on press

Response

  1. Condemned widely by Indian leaders and members of public
  2. Passed despite unanimous opposition from Indian members of the council subsequently they all resigned in protest, including Mohammed Ali jinnah
  3. Protest by ordinary people
  4. 2 popular Congress leaders Satya Pal and Saifuddin Kitchlew Were arrested

Amritsar Massacre

cause

Early in April 1919 news of the arrest of Indian nationalist leaders in the Sikh holy city of Amritsar sparked riots in which a mob went on the rampage, killing several Europeans, leaving an English female missionary for dead, and looting numerous banks and public buildings. British and Indian troops under the command of ==Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer== were sent to restore order and Dyer banned all public meetings which, he announced, would be dispersed by force if necessary.

What happened

thousands gathered in protest (another saying was they were celebrating the Sikh New Year) in a walled enclosure called the Jallianwala Bagh, near the city’s Golden Temple, sacred to Sikhs. Dyer marched a force of 90 Gurkha and Indian soldiers into the enclosure and, without warning, they opened fire for about 10 to 15 minutes on the panicking crowd trapped in the enclosure.

Dyer withdrew his men, leaving the dying and wounded where they lay. Dyer issued instructions that all Indians traversing the street where the woman missionary had been attacked were to crawl along it on their hands and knees.

Consequence and Effect

Death: According to an official figure, 379 were killed and some 1,200 wounded, though other estimates suggest much higher casualties.

The news of the massacre provoked fierce disapproval.

Censorship: A committee under Lord Hunter, a Scottish judge, was appointed to report on what had happened. Dyer appeared before it to defend himself, but its conclusions were damning; he was strongly censured and forced to resign from the Indian Army.

it helped to gather recruits to Mahatma Gandhi’s policy of non-violent resistance to British rule.

Key Objectives

  1. Introduction of dyarchy (government by two independent authorities, especially in India 1919–35) in provinces
  2. Increased Indian participation in administration
  3. Gradual development of self-governing institutions
  4. Decentralization of power
  5. Progressive realization of responsible government

Compare and Contrast with Indian Councils Act​ (1909)

Columns: Feature, name (chronologically)

Rows: Official Name, Main Objective, Key Figures, Legislative Councils, Elections, Indian Representation, Seperate Electorates, Nature of Powers, dyarchy, Franchise(power to vote), Central Legislature, public service commission, review mechanism, impact on nationalism(reaction), legacy

Change: - more representation - reserved seats for different religious group - a council of six, three of whom were Indians, to advise the viceroy - introduction of Dyarchy system - Bicameral legislature1 established - Transferred subjects (Indian ministers) - Education - Public health - Local government

Continuity: - Reserved subjects (controlled by Governor) - Law and order - Finance - Land revenue

Change Continuity
More representation Reserved subjects (controlled by Governor)
- Reserved seats for different religious groups - Law and order
- A council of six, three of whom were Indians, to advise the viceroy - Finance
Introduction of Dyarchy system - Land revenue
Bicameral legislature2 established
Transferred subjects (Indian ministers)
- Education
- Public health
- Local government

Reactions

Many British politicians - particularly those on the right-wing of politics. - seduce the Indian conservatives, reduce criticism - extend control in India - increase tax - reinforce “divide and rule” by recognizing seperate representation of different communities

Those in India and Britain who supported Home Rule

The ICS

The Indian National Congress - reject, as considered “inadequate”

Footnotes

  1. A bicameral legislature is a legislative body divided into two separate chambers or houses, each with distinct roles and responsibilities. This structure is designed to provide checks and balances within the legislative process, ensuring that laws are thoroughly debated and scrutinized before being enacted.​↩︎

  2. A bicameral legislature is a legislative body divided into two separate chambers or houses, each with distinct roles and responsibilities. This structure is designed to provide checks and balances within the legislative process, ensuring that laws are thoroughly debated and scrutinized before being enacted.​↩︎